Association between Child Nutritional Anthropometric Indices and Iron Deficiencies among Children Aged 6-59 Months in Nepal.

Developmental impairment remains an important public health problem among children in many developing countries, including Nepal. Iron deficiency in children may affect development and lead to anaemia. This study on 1702 children aged 6-59 months aimed to assess the association between nutritional anthropometric indices and iron deficiencies. Data for this study were extracted from the 2016 Nepal National Micronutrient Status Survey. Three nutritional anthropometric indices (stunting, wasting and underweight) and their association with anaemia and iron deficiencies (ferritin and sTfR biomarkers) were assessed by conducting multivariate statistical analyses. The prevalence of stunting, wasting and underweight among children aged 6-59 months was 35.6%, 11.7% and 29.0%, respectively. Most of the children were not stunted (64.4%), not wasted (71.0%) and not underweight (88.3%). Belonging to castes other than the Janajati, Dalit and Brahmin castes increased the odds of anaemia and iron deficiency (ferritin biomarker). Children in the age group 6-23 months were significantly at higher odds of having anaemia and iron deficiency (ferritin and sTfR biomarkers). Stunting significantly increased the odds of anaemia [adjusted odds ratio (OR): 1.55; 95% confidence interval (CI): (1.11, 2.17)], iron deficiency (ferritin biomarker [OR: 1.56; 95% CI: (1.16, 2.08)] and sTfR biomarker [OR: 1.60; 95% CI: (1.18, 2.15)]). Further, underweight significantly increased the odds of anaemia [OR: 1.69; 95% CI: (1.12, 2.54)] and iron deficiency (sTfR biomarker [OR: 1.48; 95% CI: (1.14, 1.93)]). Interventions to minimise the occurrence of anaemia and iron deficiencies among children in Nepal should focus on providing appropriate healthcare services that would reduce the burden of stunting and underweight.

The influence of adolescents' nutrition knowledge and school food environment on adolescents' dietary behaviors in urban Ethiopia: A qualitative study.

Adolescence is a critical period of physical, cognitive, and social development that needs to be supported with healthy diets. Dietary behaviours of adolescents can be shaped by their nutrition-literacy and their interaction with parents and peers as well as their school food environment. Therefore, the present study aimed to assess factors that influence dietary behaviours of adolescents in urban Ethiopia. Sex-disaggregated, focused group discussions (n = 70) were conducted in 36 private and government schools (n = 12/city) among adolescents (n = 432) 15-19 years of age in Addis Ababa, Bahir Dar, and Dire Dawa. Photovoice was applied in a subgroup of participants (n = 216) to gain further insights into adolescents' perception of their school food environment. Key informant interviews were conducted among school principals (n = 36). Adolescents had a relatively good nutrition knowledge and recognised the importance of diverse diets, but misperceptions also existed. They identified fruit and vegetables as healthy foods, but their consumption was deterred by food safety concerns. The adolescents identified foods high in salt, fat, and sugar, including processed/packaged foods as unhealthy, but still consumed them frequently due to their taste, affordability, availability and accessibility in and around schools. Both undernutrition and overweight/obesity were linked to social exclusion and bullying in school. Effective behavioural change communication is required to address common misperceptions. School nutrition programs should integrate water, sanitation and hygiene programs to ensure food safety. Regulations promoting healthy eating while discouraging unhealthy dietary behaviours are vital. Interventions to make nutrient-dense and healthy foods available, accessible, and affordable are urgently needed to improve the nutrition and health outcome of adolescents.

Ethiopia National Food and Nutrition Survey to inform the Ethiopian National Food and Nutrition Strategy: a study protocol.

INTRODUCTION: Ethiopia has made significant progress in reducing malnutrition in the past two decades. Despite such improvements, a substantial segment of the country's population remains chronically undernourished and suffers from micronutrient deficiencies and from increasing diet-related non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, hypertension and cancer. This survey aims to assess anthropometric status, dietary intake and micronutrient status of Ethiopian children, women and adolescent girls. The study will also assess coverage of direct and indirect nutrition-related interventions and map agricultural soil nutrients. The survey will serve as a baseline for the recently developed Ethiopian Food System Transformation Plan and will inform the implementation of the National Food and Nutrition Strategy. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: As a population-based, cross-sectional survey, the study will collect data from the 10 regions and 2 city administrations of Ethiopia. The study population will be women of reproductive age, children aged 0-59 months, school-aged children and adolescent girls. A total of 16 596 households will be surveyed, allowing the generation of national and regional estimates. A two-stage stratified cluster sampling procedure will be used to select households. In the first stage, 639 enumeration areas (EAs) will be selected using probability-proportional-to-size allocation. In the second stage, 26 eligible households will be selected within each EA using systematic random selection. Primary outcomes include coverage of direct and indirect nutrition interventions, infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices, food insecurity, dietary intakes, mental health, anthropometric status, micronutrient status and soil nutrient status. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The protocol was fully reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Ethiopian Public Health Institute (protocol no: EPHI-IRB-317-2020). The study is based on voluntary participation and written informed consent is required from study participants. The findings will be disseminated via forums and conferences and will be submitted for publication in peer-reviewed journals.

Correlates of Sedentary Time Among Children and Adolescents in Ethiopia: A Cross-Sectional Study.

PURPOSE: To assess the correlates of sedentary time among children and adolescents in Ethiopia. METHODS: The study was conducted in representative samples of children and adolescents in the capital city of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to determine associations of sedentary time and predictor variables. RESULTS: The mean sedentary time was 4.61 (95% confidence interval [CI], 4.35-4.86) hours per day. Overall, the prevalence of high sedentary time (>3 h/d) was 68.2% (95% CI, 64.2-72.2). Results of multivariable logistic regression analyses showed a statistically significant association between high sedentary time and female household head (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 0.50; 95% CI, 0.32-0.80), literate mothers (AOR = 1.98; 95% CI, 1.26-3.11), child attending public school (AOR = 1.79; 95% CI, 1.12-2.85), children who belonged to the poor and rich household wealth tertiles compared with medium wealth tertile (AOR = 2.30; 95% CI, 1.42-3.72 and AOR = 2.04; 95% CI, 1.14-3.65, respectively), and those families that did not have adequate indoor play space for children (AOR = 0.45; 95% CI, 0.29-0.72). CONCLUSION: The study found that time spent sedentary was high in the study area as compared with other studies of similar settings. Several modifiable factors were identified that can be targeted in interventions to reduce sedentary time in the study setting.

Co-coverage of reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health interventions shows wide inequalities and is associated with child nutritional outcomes in Ethiopia (2005-2019).

The health system is the primary vehicle for the delivery of nutrition-specific interventions that aim to reduce maternal and child malnutrition. The integration of nutrition interventions into existing health interventions is promising, but to ensure that no one is left behind requires that access to essential health services is equitably distributed. This study aims to assess trends and socioeconomic inequalities in coverage of reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health (RMNCH) and assess its association with child nutritional outcomes in Ethiopia. Using the Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey (2005, 2011, 2016, and 2019), we estimated the coverage of RMNCH interventions in Ethiopia using the co-coverage index, which is a count of the number of interventions accessed. We assessed the trend and inequalities in co-coverage and evaluated its association with child nutritional outcomes like stunting, wasting, and minimum dietary diversity (MDD). The national co-coverage index has shown a significant increase over the 2005-2019 period. However, all of the RMNCH interventions constituting the co-coverage index showed a pro-rich and pro-urban distribution (p < 0.05). The highest inequality, based on the slope index of inequality (SII), was observed for skilled assistance during delivery (SII: 80.4%), followed by access to an improved source of drinking water (SII: 62.6%), and antenatal care visits (SII: 55.5%). The low coverage in RMNCH and the observed inequality were associated with stunting, wasting, and MDD. Reducing socioeconomic inequality in RMNCH is key to achieve the health, nutrition and equity-related goals of the Sustainable Development Goals.

Pathways and approaches for scaling-up of community-based management of acute malnutrition programs through the lens of complex adaptive systems in South Sudan.

BACKGROUND: Funds for community-based management of acute malnutrition (CMAM) programs are short-term in nature. CMAM programs are implemented in countries with weak policies and health systems and are primarily funded by donors. Beyond operational expansion, their institutionalisation and alignment with governments' priorities are poorly documented. The study aimed to identify pathway opportunities and approaches for horizontal and vertical scaling up of CMAM programs in South Sudan. METHODS: The study was conducted in South Sudan between August and September 2021 using an online qualitative survey with 31 respondents from policy and implementing organisations. The Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, and Maintenance (RE-AIM) framework guided the study's design. It was self-administered through the Qualtrics platform. We used Qualitative Content Analysis supported by the Nvivo coding process. A deductive a priori template of codes approach was complemented by a data-driven inductive approach to develop the second level of interpretive understanding. RESULTS: Findings from the study demonstrate that the emphasis of CMAM programs was horizontal scaling up, characterised by geographic distribution and coverage as well as operational expansion. Main challenges have included unsustainable funding models, the inadequacy of existing infrastructure, high operational costs, cultural beliefs, and access-related barriers. Factor impacting access to CMAM programs have been geographical terrains, safety, and security concerns. Vertical scaling up, which emphasises institutional and ownership strengthening through a sound policy, regulatory, and fiscal environment, received relatively little attention. Nutrition supplies are not part of the government's essential drug list and there is limited or no budgetary allocation for nutrition programs by the government in national budgets and fiscal strategies. Factors constraining vertical scalability have included weak government systems and capacity, a lack of advocacy and lobbying opportunities, and an apparent lack of exits strategies. CONCLUSION: Addressing the scalability problems of CMAM programs in South Sudan demands a delicate balancing act that prioritises both horizontal and vertical scalability. Government and political leadership that harness multidisciplinary and multi-sectoral coordination are required. There is a need to increase policy commitment to malnutrition and associated budgetary allocation, emphasise local resource mobilisation, and ensure financial sustainability of integrating CMAM programs into the existing health and welfare system.

Child feeding practices in rural Ethiopia show increasing consumption of unhealthy foods.

The quality of complementary feeding can have both short- and long-term health impacts by delaying or promoting child growth and establishing taste preferences and feeding behaviours. We aimed to assess the healthy and unhealthy feeding practices of infants and young children in rural Ethiopia. We conducted two rounds of surveys in December 2017/18 in Habru district, North Wello, rural Ethiopia among caregivers of infants and young children (N = 574). We characterised the consumption of infants and young children using non-quantitative 24 h recall and the World Health Organization infant and young child feeding indicators. Sociodemographic characteristics, anthropometry and haemoglobin concentrations were assessed. Breastfeeding was a norm as 82% and 67% were breastfed in the first and second rounds. Between the two rounds, dietary diversity increased from 5% to 17% (p < 0.05), but more pronounced increases were observed in the consumption of ultra-processed food (UPFs). Up to one-in-five (22%) of the children consumed UFPs. With an average of only three food groups consumed, the consumption of nutrient-dense foods like animal source foods, fruits and vegetables was very low particularly among younger children. UPFs are an additional risk factor that contributes to poor quality diets. Behavioural Change Communication interventions, including those in rural areas, should explicitly discourage the consumption of UPFs. Future studies should aim to quantify the amount of UPFs consumed and evaluate how this is associated with diet adequacy and nutritional outcomes.

Drivers of change in weight-for-height among children under 5 years of age in Ethiopia: Risk factors and data gaps to identify risk factors.

The prevention of wasting should be a public health priority as the global burden of acute malnutrition is still high. Gaps still exist in our understanding of context-specific risk factors and interventions that can be implemented to prevent acute malnutrition. We used data from the four rounds of the Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey (2000-2016) to identify risk factors that have contributed to the change in weight-for-height z-score (WHZ) among children under 5 years of age. We performed a pooled linear regression analysis followed by a decomposition analysis to identify relevant risk factors and their relative contribution to the change in WHZ. Modest improvements in WHZ were seen between 2000 and 2016. The sharpest decrease in mean WHZ occurred from birth to 6 months of age. Perceived low weight at birth and recent diarrhoea predicted a decline in WHZ among children aged 0-5, 6-23 and 23-59 months. Less than 50% of the change in WHZ was accounted for by the change in risk factors included in our regression decomposition analysis. This finding highlights data gaps to identify context-specific wasting risk factors. The decline in the prevalence of recent diarrhoea (15% of the improvement), decline in low birth size (7%-9%), and an increase in wealth (15%-30%) were the main risk factors that accounted for the explained change in WHZ. Our findings emphasize the importance of interventions to reduce low birthweight, diarrhoea and interventions that address income inequities to prevent acute malnutrition.

Magnitude, trends and drivers of the coexistence of maternal overweight/obesity and childhood undernutrition in Ethiopia: Evidence from Demographic and Health Surveys (2005-2016).

Ethiopia faces a rising problem of overweight and obesity alongside a high prevalence of undernutrition; a double burden of malnutrition (DBM). This study aimed to quantify the magnitude and trends of household-level DBM-defined as the coexistence of maternal overweight/obesity and child undernutrition (i.e., stunting or anaemia)-in Ethiopia between 2005, 2011 and 2016 and understand the potential drivers influencing DBM and the change in DBM over time. Data come from the Ethiopian Demographic and Health Surveys. National and regional prevalence estimates of the DBM were calculated (n = 13,107). Equiplots were produced to display inequalities in the distribution of DBM. Factors associated with DBM were explored using pooled multivariable logistic regression analyses for 2005, 2011 and 2016 (n = 9358). These were also included in a logistic regression decomposition analysis to understand their contribution to the change in DBM between 2005 and 2016 (n = 5285). The prevalence of household-level DBM at the national level was low, with a modest increase from 2.4% in 2005% to 3.5% in 2016. This masks important within-country variability, with substantially higher prevalence in Addis Ababa (22.8%). Factors positively associated with DBM were maternal age (odds ratio [OR] = 1.04 [1.02, 1.06]), urban residence (OR = 3.12 [2.24, 4.36]), wealth (OR = 1.14 [1.06, 1.24]) and the number of children <5 in the household (OR = 1.30 [1.12, 1.49]). Overall, 70.5% of the increase in DBM between 2005 and 2016 was attributed to increased wealth, urban residence and region. Double-duty actions that address multiple forms of malnutrition are urgently needed in urban settings.

Complementary feeding and food-group level inequality among Ethiopian children 6-23 months of age (2011-2019).

Ensuring diet quality in the first 2 years of life is critical to preventing malnutrition and instilling healthy food preferences. Children's diet quality has changed little over time and inequalities by socioeconomic status, rural-urban residence, but also by food group may exist. Using data from the 2011, 2016 and 2019 demographic and health surveys (DHS), we estimated the prevalence and inequalities in the minimum diet diversity (MDD), minimum meal frequency (MMF) and minimum acceptable diet (MAD). We further assessed food group-level inequities. In 2019, only 13.5% of children 6-23 months of age met the MDD, 55% met the MMF and only 11% met the MAD indicator. Absolute and relative measures of inequality were calculated. Modest increases in MDD, MMF and MAD were observed over the past decade (2011-2019). These modest improvements were concentrated in limited geographical areas, among children in wealthier households, and urban residents. Unhealthy practices such as bottle-feeding and zero fruit and vegetables have been increasing; whereas, inequities in the consumption of nutrient-dense foods have widened. Nevertheless, children from the wealthiest quintile also failed to meet the MDD. Multisectoral efforts that span from diversifying the food supply, regulating the marketing of unhealthy foods, and promoting minimal processing of perishables (i.e., to extend shelf-life) are needed. Context-adapted behavioural change communication along with nutrition-sensitive social protection schemes are also needed to equitably improve the diet quality of children in Ethiopia.

Evaluating the coverage and quality of nutrition programs via a bottom-up approach: A secondary analysis of real-time data from an end-user monitoring system in Ethiopia.

Over the last two decades, great efforts and investments have been made in Ethiopia to ensure that all children have equal access to nutrition services in health facilities. While quality health systems are a prerequisite for quality nutrition services, little attention has been given to the evaluation of the supply and delivery services. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the coverage and quality of the nutrition-specific interventions delivered through the health system. Using an end-user monitoring (EUM) system, we monitored the delivery of nutrition-specific interventions in 500 districts, having 2514 health facilities distributed throughout Ethiopia. Data were collected through third-party monitors between August 2020 and 2021. Roughly 90% of health facilities were performing severe acute malnutrition management in line with the national guideline/protocol, and 2/3 of the assessed facilities were delivering iron and folic acid, vitamin A supplementation and deworming. A third of the messages on AMIYCN were retained by beneficiaries. Warehouse conditions were good in 64.3% of the facilities, but only 22% had good recording practices and about half had problems related to the quality and availability of nutrition supplies. Most beneficiaries were satisfied with the nutrition supplies and service delivered at the health facility level. This study also suggests the relevance of an EUM system to assess the quality of nutrition service delivery and its related supply management, as well as to improve the implementation of nutrition interventions as a decision-making tool.

Estimating the number of deaths averted from 2008 to 2020 within the Ethiopian CMAM programme.

The management of wasting in Ethiopia is heavily reliant on the Community-based Management of Acute Malnutrition (CMAM) programme that has been implemented in more than 18,000 service delivery points scattered across the country. Despite the full-scale implementation of the CMAM, the number of child death averted, and the cost per child death averted remains unknown. This study aimed to estimate the cost and the number of child death averted by the CMAM programme between 2008 and 2020. Using data from routine monitoring of the CMAM programme, we estimated the excess mortality averted by the programme and estimated the cost per averted child death based on supply and labour. Over the past 13 years between 2008 and 2020, 3.6 million children under 5 years were admitted to the Ethiopian CMAM programme. The yearly average admission of 317,228 was achieved since 2011. On average, ~34,000 child deaths were averted yearly. The CMAM programme was estimated to have saved 437,654 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 320,161; 469,932) child deaths between 2008 and 2020, approximately 12% of the admitted cases. The average cost of the programme per adverted death was estimated at US$762/child death averted (95% CI = 639; 1001). The CMAM programme in Ethiopia is cost-effective and has continued to avert a significant number of child death. Given the high short- and long-term economic and health consequences of child wasting, concerted multi-sectoral efforts are needed to accelerate progress not only in its treatment but also in its prevention.

Acceptance and compliance with micronutrient powder (MNP) among children aged 6-23 months in northern Nigeria.

This study sought to understand the utilization patterns and influencing factors of micronutrient powder (MNP) use among children aged 6-23 months in northern Nigeria as part of formative research to inform the design of an infant and young child feeding (IYCF) intervention. It had an iterative, multi-phase design whereby mixed methods data were collected from 144 households participating in an 8-week home-feeding trial. During the first four weeks, 12-hour direct observations were conducted with 24 households using MNP. Over the next four weeks, 18 of the same households were observed. In-depth interviews were also conducted among 27 caregivers to understand factors related to utilization. Unannounced spot checks (n = 86) were also conducted to gauge MNP compliance. Most households (76.7%) (66/86) adhered to instructions for using MNP (Adamawa (34/44 = 77.3%) and Kebbi (32/42 = 76.2%)). Facilitating factors to MNP adherence were identified, most notably the high ease of utilization, with 90.0% of caregivers indicating the MNP was 'easy' or 'very easy' to use. Several barriers to MNP compliance were identified and organized into three domains: product-related (e.g. difficulty opening sachet), child-related (e.g. not finishing fortified staple), and caregiver-related (e.g. difficulty making food daily). In Kebbi and Adamawa, MNP was accepted and utilized according to guidelines among most study participants. Findings may be used for scaling up MNP within a more comprehensive IYCF intervention in northern Nigeria.

The effectiveness of interventions on nutrition social behaviour change communication in improving child nutritional status within the first 1000 days: Evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis.

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the robustness of designs and tools used in nutrition social behaviour change communication (NSBCC) interventions and establish their effectiveness. EBSCOhost as an umbrella database including Medline (Ovid) and CINAHL, EMBASE, and ProQUEST databases were searched for peer-reviewed articles from January 1960 to October 2018. Additional sources were searched to identify all relevant studies including grey literature. Studies' biases were assessed according to Cochrane handbook. Pooled estimate of effectiveness of interventions on infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices and child nutritional status with 95% confidence intervals were measured using random-effects models. Eighty studies were included in this review: Fifty-one (64%) were cluster randomised controlled trials (RCTs), 13 (16%) were RCTs and 16 (20%) quasi-experimental. Of the included studies, 22 (27%) measured early initiation of breastfeeding, 38 (47%) measured exclusive breastfeeding, 29 (36%) measured minimum dietary diversity, 21 (26%) measured minimum meal frequency, 26 (32%) measured height for age z-scores (HAZ), 23 (29%) measured weight for height z-scores (WHZ), 27 (34%) measured weight for age z-scores (WAZ), 20 (25%) measured stunting, 14 (17%) measured wasting, and 11 (14%) measured underweight. The overall intervention's effect was significant for exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) (odds ratio = 1.73; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.35-2.11, p < 0.001), HAZ (standardized mean differences [SMD] = 0.19; 95% CI: 0.17-0.21; p < 0.001), WHZ (SMD = 0.02; 95% CI: 0.004-0.04; p < 0.001), and WAZ (SMD = 0.04; 95% CI: 0.02-0.06; p < 0.001). Evidence shows the effectiveness of NSBCC in improving EBF and child anthropometric outcomes. Further research should test the impact on child nutritional status with clearly specified and detailed NSBCC interventions.

To see, hear, and live: 25 years of the vitamin A programme in Nepal.

Nepal has a rich history of vitamin A research and a national, biannual preschool vitamin A supplementation (VAS) programme that has sustained high coverage for 25 years despite many challenges, including conflict. Key elements of programme success have included (a) evidence of a 26-30% reduction in child mortality from two, in-country randomized trials; (b) strong political and donor support; (c) positioning local female community health volunteers as key operatives; (d) nationwide community mobilization and demand creation for the programme; and (e) gradual expansion of the programme over a period of several years, conducting and integrating delivery research, and monitoring to allow new approaches to be tested and adapted to available resources. The VAS network has served as a platform for delivering other services, including anthelmintic treatment and screening for acute malnutrition. We estimate that VAS has saved over 45,000 young lives over the past 15 years of attained national coverage. Consumption of vitamin A- and carotenoid-rich foods by children and women nationally remains low, indicating that supplementation is still needed. Current challenges and opportunities to improving vitamin A status include lower VAS coverage among younger children (infants 6-11 months of age), finding ways to increase availability and access to dietary vitamin A sources, and ensuring local programme investments given the recent decentralization of the government.

Elucidating the sustained decline in under-three child linear growth faltering in Nepal, 1996-2016.

Childhood linear growth faltering remains a major public health concern in Nepal. Nevertheless, over the past 20 years, Nepal sustained one of the most rapid reductions in the prevalence of stunting worldwide. First, our study analysed the trends in height-for-age z-score (HAZ), stunting prevalence, and available nutrition-sensitive and nutrition-specific determinants of linear growth faltering in under-three children across Nepal's Family Health Survey 1996 and Nepal's Demographic and Health Surveys 2001, 2006, 2011, and 2016. Second, we constructed pooled multivariable linear regression models and decomposed the contributions of our time-variant determinants on the predicted changes in HAZ and stunting over the past two decades. Our findings indicate substantial improvements in HAZ (38.5%) and reductions in stunting (-42.6%) and severe stunting prevalence (-63.9%) in Nepalese children aged 0-35 months. We also report that the increment in HAZ, across the 1996-2016 period, was significantly associated (confounder-adjusted p < .05) with household asset index, maternal and paternal years of education, maternal body mass index and height, basic child vaccinations, preceding birth interval, childbirth in a medical facility, and prenatal doctor visits. Furthermore, our quantitative decomposition of HAZ identified advances in utilisation of health care and related services (31.7% of predicted change), household wealth accumulation (25%), parental education (21.7%), and maternal nutrition (8.3%) as key drivers of the long-term and sustained progress against child linear growth deficits. Our research reiterates the multifactorial nature of chronic child undernutrition and the need for coherent multisectoral nutrition-sensitive and nutrition-specific strategies at national scale to further improve linear growth in Nepal. [Correction added on 6 November 2020, after first online publication: in abstract, the citation year in the fourth sentence has been changed from '2001' to '2011'.].

Individual, household and national factors associated with iron, vitamin A and zinc deficiencies among children aged 6-59 months in Nepal.

Iron, vitamin A and zinc deficiencies are the top three micronutrients contributing to disability-adjusted life years globally. The study assessed the factors associated with iron, vitamin A, and Zinc deficiencies among Nepalese children (n = 1709) aged 6-59 months using data from the 2016 Nepal National Micronutrient Status Survey. The following cut-off points were applied: iron deficiency [ferritin < 12 µg/L or soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR) > 8.3 mg/L], vitamin A deficiency (retinol-binding protein < 0.69 µmol/L) and zinc deficiency (serum zinc < 65 µg/dl for morning sample and <57 µg/dl for afternoon sample). We used multiple logistic regression adjusted for sampling weights and clustering to examine the predictors of micronutrient deficiencies. The prevalence of iron depletion (ferritin), tissue iron (sTfR), vitamin A and zinc deficiencies were 36.7%, 27.6%, 8.5% and 20.4%, respectively. Children were more likely to be iron deficient (ferritin) if aged 6-23 months, stunted, and in a middle-wealth quintile household. Vitamin A deficiency was associated with development region and was higher among children living in severe food-insecure households and those who did not consume fruits. Zinc deficiency was higher among children in rural areas and the poorest wealth quintile. The Government of Nepal should focus on addressing micronutrient deficiencies in the early years, with emphasis on improving food systems, promote healthy diets, among younger and stunted children and provide social cash transfer targeting high-risk development regions, poorest and food insecure households.

Infant and young child feeding practices and child linear growth in Nepal: Regression-decomposition analysis of national survey data, 1996-2016.

Suboptimal infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices have profound implications on child survival, health, growth, and development. First, our study analysed trends in 18 IYCF indicators and height-for-age z-score (HAZ) and stunting prevalence across Nepal's Family Health Survey 1996 and four rounds of Nepal Demographic and Health Surveys from 2001-2016. Second, we constructed multivariable regression models and decomposed the contribution of optimal IYCF practices on HAZ and stunting prevalence over the 1996-2016 period. Our findings indicate that most age-appropriate IYCF practices and child linear growth outcomes improved over the past two decades. At present, according to the World Health Organization's tool for national assessment of IYCF practices, duration of breastfeeding is rated very good, early initiation of breastfeeding and exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) are rated good, whereas minimal bottle-feeding and introduction of solid, semi-solid or soft foods are rated fair. Our study also reports that a paucity of age-appropriate IYCF practices-in particular complementary feeding-are significantly associated with increased HAZ and decreased probability of stunting (p < .05). Moreover, age-appropriate IYCF practices-in isolation-made modest statistical contributions to the rapid and sustained reduction in age-specific child linear growth faltering from 1996-2016. Nevertheless, our findings indicate that comprehensive multisectoral nutrition strategies-integrating and advocating optimal IYCF-are critical to further accelerate the progress against child linear growth faltering. Furthermore, specific focus is needed to improve IYCF practices that have shown no significant development over the past two decades in Nepal: EBF, minimum acceptable diet, and minimal bottle-feeding.

The evolution, progress, and future direction of Nepal's universal salt iodization program.

Nepal is located in what was once known as the Himalayan Goitre Belt and once had one of the highest prevalence's of iodine deficiency disorders in the world. However, through a well-executed universal salt iodization program implemented over the past 25 years, it has achieved optimal iodine intake for its population, effectively eliminating the adverse consequences of iodine deficiency disorders. A comprehensive review of policy and legislation, surveys, and program reports was undertaken to examine the key elements contributing to the success of this program. The paper reviews the origins and maturation of salt iodization in Nepal, as well as trends in the coverage of iodized salt, the iodine content in salt, and population iodine status over the past two decades. The paper describes critical components of the program including advocacy efforts, trade issues with India, the role of the Salt Trading Corporation, monitoring, and periodic program reviews. The paper discusses the recent findings from the 2016 national micronutrient survey demonstrating the success of the salt iodization program and describes emerging challenges facing the program in the future.

Factors associated with anaemia in a nationally representative sample of nonpregnant women of reproductive age in Nepal.

We used cross-sectional data from the 2016 Nepal National Micronutrient Status Survey to evaluate factors associated with anaemia among a nationally representative sample of nonpregnant women 15- 49 years (n = 1, 918). Haemoglobin, biomarkers of iron status and other micronutrients, infection, inflammation, and blood disorders were assessed from venous blood. Soil-transmitted helminth and Helicobacter pylori infections were assessed from stool. Sociodemographic, household, and health characteristics and diet were ascertained by interview. We conducted bivariate analyses between candidate predictors and anaemia (haemoglobin <12.0 g/ dL, altitude- and smoking-adjusted). Candidate predictors that were significant in bivariate models (P < 0.05) were included in the multivariable logistic regression model, accounting for complex sampling design. Anaemia prevalence was 20.2% (95% confidence interval [CI] [17.6, 22.8]). Associated with reduced anaemia odds were living in the Mountain and Hill ecological zones relative to the Terai (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 0.35, 95% CI [0.21, 0.60] and AOR 0.41, 95% CI [0.29, 0.59], respectively), recent cough (AOR 0.56, 95% CI [0.38, 0.82]), hormonal contraceptive use (AOR 0.58; 95% CI [0.38, 0.88]), ln ferritin (micrograms per litre; AOR 0.43, 95% CI [0.35, 0.54]), and ln retinol binding protein (micrograms per litre; AOR 0.20, 95% CI [0.11, 0.37]). Residing in a house with an earth floor (AOR 1.74, 95% CI [1.18, 2.56]), glucose-6- phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (AOR 2.44, 95% CI [1.66, 3.60]), and haemoglobinopathies (AOR 6.15, 95% CI [3.09, 12.26]) were associated with increased anaemia odds. Interventions that improve micronutrient status, ensure access to hormonal birth control, and replace dirt floors to reduce infection risk might help reduce anaemia in this population.